Psychology Assignment Sample
Q1:
Answer :In addition to asking participants to recall the event, the researcher also introduces a scenario in which participants are exposed to misleading post-event information (e.g., a photograph of the wrong suspect). The researcher wishes to explore how cognitive biases, memory processes, and reconstructive memory might influence the accuracy of eyewitness testimony.
Using concepts from cognitive psychology, explain why memory is not always accurate, focusing on the role of working memory, long-term memory, cognitive biases, and the misinformation effect. Discuss how these factors might contribute to the errors in eyewitness testimony and suggest strategies that could improve the accuracy of eyewitness recall.
Memory, particularly in the context of eyewitness testimony, is crucial in many legal situations, where the accuracy of recall can significantly affect the outcome of a case. However, research in cognitive psychology has demonstrated that memory is fallible and subject to various influences. Eyewitness testimony is especially prone to errors due to the complex nature of memory encoding, storage, and retrieval processes.
Memory is not a perfect recording of events; rather, it is a reconstructive process influenced by numerous factors, including cognitive biases, misleading information, and the limitations of our working memory and long-term memory. In this scenario, the researcher observes significant variation in the accuracy of eyewitness testimony despite using the same video for all participants, and these differences are likely influenced by several cognitive processes.
Working Memory: The Initial Encoding and Processing
Working memory is a temporary and limited-capacity system that actively holds and manipulates information during cognitive tasks, such as recalling details of an event. According to Baddeley’s model of working memory (1974), working memory consists of several components, including the phonological loop (which processes auditory information), the visuospatial sketchpad (which processes visual and spatial information), and the central executive (which controls attention and coordinates information between the subsystems).
In the context of eyewitness testimony, participants rely on their working memory to encode the details of the crime scene, such as the appearance of the perpetrator, the location of the crime, and the sequence of events. However, working memory is limited in capacity and susceptible to cognitive overload. If the crime scene contains a large amount of complex information, participants may struggle to retain and organize the details accurately. Moreover, cognitive load can reduce the effectiveness of encoding, leading to incomplete or distorted memories.
For example, a participant might focus on a prominent feature of the suspect (e.g., their distinctive clothing) while failing to encode other crucial details, such as the suspect's facial features or actions. This selective attention can lead to gaps in memory and distortions in recall.
Long-Term Memory: The Storage of Eyewitness Information
Long-term memory (LTM) is a more permanent storage system that holds vast amounts of information over extended periods. LTM is crucial in recalling detailed information about the crime scene, such as the suspect’s appearance, behaviors, and the surrounding environment. LTM is typically divided into explicit memory (conscious memory of facts and events) and implicit memory (unconscious memory, such as procedural knowledge).
However, long-term memory is not a flawless repository of facts. It is subject to distortion over time due to processes like reconstructive memory, where memories are shaped by various factors such as prior knowledge, expectations, and beliefs. When an eyewitness recalls a crime scene, their memory may be influenced by what they have seen before, heard from others, or read in the media, which may lead to false memories or distortions.
In this context, long-term memory is vulnerable to the misinformation effect (Loftus, 1975), a phenomenon where the introduction of misleading information after an event can distort an individual’s recall of the event itself. For instance, if participants are exposed to a photograph of a different suspect after watching the crime video, their memory of the original suspect may become influenced by this new, incorrect information. The integration of misleading details into the memory representation of the crime scene can lead to incorrect identifications and errors in the eyewitness testimony.
Cognitive Biases and Their Role in Eyewitness Testimony
Cognitive biases are systematic patterns of deviation from rationality in judgment and decision-making. These biases can significantly impact the accuracy of eyewitness testimony by shaping how information is perceived, encoded, and recalled. Some of the key cognitive biases that can affect eyewitness testimony include:
1. Confirmation Bias
Confirmation bias occurs when individuals seek out or interpret information that confirms their pre-existing beliefs. In the case of eyewitness testimony, a participant who has a preconceived idea of the suspect's characteristics may unconsciously focus on details that align with their expectations, while ignoring contradictory details. For instance, if a witness believes the perpetrator was tall, they may be more likely to incorrectly identify someone with a tall stature, even if that person was not the actual suspect.
2. Stress and Anxiety
The presence of stress or anxiety during the event can also impair memory encoding and retrieval. Stress-induced memory impairment can affect working memory capacity, causing witnesses to miss important details. In a high-pressure situation like a crime scene, the emotional state of the eyewitness may influence their ability to recall the event accurately.
3. Weapon Focus Effect
The weapon focus effect occurs when the presence of a weapon during a crime distracts the eyewitness from other important details, such as the perpetrator’s face or other contextual elements. When the witness focuses their attention on the weapon, they may miss critical information that could lead to a more accurate identification.
The Misinformation Effect and Post-Event Information
The misinformation effect is one of the most critical factors influencing the accuracy of eyewitness testimony. When individuals are exposed to post-event misinformation, such as misleading questions or false details, their memories of the original event can be altered. This is particularly relevant when the researcher introduces misleading post-event information (e.g., a photograph of the wrong suspect).
Research by Loftus and Palmer (1974) demonstrated that eyewitnesses' memories could be distorted by the way questions are phrased after an event. For example, participants who were asked, "How fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other?" were more likely to recall the cars moving faster than those asked, "How fast were the cars going when they hit each other?" The term "smashed" led to a distorted memory of the event, highlighting how language can influence recall.
In the context of the eyewitness testimony, the introduction of an incorrect photograph of the suspect could lead to false recognition—the participant may misidentify the perpetrator because their memory of the original event is altered by the misleading post-event information.
Strategies to Improve Eyewitness Accuracy
Given the fallibility of memory, several strategies can be employed to improve the accuracy of eyewitness testimony:
- Cognitive Interviewing: Developed by Geiselman and Fisher (1984), cognitive interviewing involves asking witnesses to recall events in a variety of ways, such as by describing the event from different perspectives or in reverse order. This technique reduces the likelihood of suggestion and allows for a more accurate recall by accessing different memory pathways.
- Minimizing Misinformation Exposure: Law enforcement should minimize exposure to misleading post-event information. This includes preventing witnesses from seeing media coverage or hearing other people's accounts of the crime before they are interviewed.
- Avoiding Leading Questions: Interviewers should avoid asking leading or suggestive questions, which can distort memory. Instead, open-ended questions should be used to allow the witness to freely recall details.
- Using Lineups and Photo Arrays Carefully: To prevent misidentification, lineups should be conducted carefully, ensuring that the suspect is not inadvertently emphasized. Additionally, witnesses should be reminded that the perpetrator may not be in the lineup at all.
Conclusion
Eyewitness testimony is influenced by various cognitive processes, including the limitations of working memory, the reconstructive nature of long-term memory, and the potential for cognitive biases and the misinformation effect to distort recall. The researcher’s observation of varied accuracy in eyewitness testimony is consistent with cognitive psychology theories that suggest memory is not a perfect recording of events. By understanding these cognitive processes and applying strategies such as cognitive interviewing and minimizing exposure to misleading information, the accuracy of eyewitness testimony can be improved.